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GYMNASTIC    PAPERS 

EDITBD    BY 

JAKOB    BOLIN 

645  Madison  Avenue,  Now  York  City 


Series  -A 


/f umber  t 


What  is 
Gymrvastics? 


BY 


JAKOB     BOLIN 


PRICE  :~TWENTY-FIVE     CENTS 


Copyrighted.    1902.    by    JAKOB    BOLIN 


vr^^rray  ^^^^..^  ^'^ 


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(^^%-^^ 


Introdxjction 


The  intention  with  the  papers  in  this  series  is  to  fur- 
nish a  brief  statement  of  the  most  important  general  prin- 
ciples which  ought  to  govern  us  in  gymnastics  for  nor- 
mally healthy  and  normally  developed  individuals,  the 
adjectives  being  used  in  the  sense  in  which  they  are  em- 
ployed in  common  parlance;  and  also,  upon  the  basis  of 
these  general  principles,  to  explain  the  characteristics  of 
the  gymnastic  exercises  most  frequently  employed  in 
such  work.  In  other  words,  we  will  not  consider  gym- 
nastics for  those  who  are  perfect  in  health  and  develop- 
ment, because  such  perfection  seldom,  if  ever,  exists. 
Nor  shall  we  give  consideration  to  the  treatment  by  gym- 
nastics of  those  who  are  admittedly  ill  or  abnormal  in 
body  or  mind.  We  will  deal  only  with  gymnastics  for 
the  average  man,  woman  and  child,  as  we  find  them  ply- 
ing their  vocations  and  attending  to  their  duties.  It  is, 
however,  not  our  intention  to  intimate  by  this  statement 
that  the  different  branches  of  gymnastics  are  so  distinct 
and  separate  that  there  are  no  points  of  contact  between 
them.  On  the  contrary,  all  branches  of  gymnastics  are 
most  intimately  connected,  and,  in  fact,  overlap  in  many 
places  and  we  will  probably  have  opportunities  to  touch 
on  some  of  their  relations.  I  simply  wish  to  emphasize, 
at  the  very  beginning,  that  we  are  here  specifically  con- 
cerned with  that  branch  which  the  Swedes  call  "frisk- 


2  Ii\trod\ictlon 

gymnastik,"  the  nearest  German  equivalent  of  which  is 
"Turnen,"  but  for  which  there  exists  no  single  word  in 
the  English  language,  in  which  it  is  variously  designated 
as  hygienic,  dietetic,  physiologic,  pedagogic,  educational, 
civic,  popular  or  school  gymnastics,  in  contradistinction 
to  therapeutic,  medical,  remedial,  corrective,  aesthetic, 
and  military  gymnastics.  If  I  were  to  distinguish  this 
branch  of  gymnastics  from  the  others  by  a  specific  adjec- 
tive, I  would  perhaps  denote  it  as  developmental  gym- 
nastics, because  the  word  development  seems  to  me  to 
exactly  cover  the  purpose  of  this  gymnastics,  as  I  see  it, 
nothing  more  nor  less ;  while  all  the  other  terms  just  enu- 
merated, and  many  other  similar  ones,  in  many  minds  at 
least,  designate  only  a  part  of  the  aim  which  should  be 
kept  in  view.  There  is  not  one  of  them  which  does  not 
emphasize  a  single  phase  of  the  subject  with  the  more  or 
less  complete  exclusion  of  the  other  sides.  If  any  one  of 
them  be  accepted,  the  very  name  will  therefore  tempt  us 
to  forget  in  practice  some  features,  at  the  expense  of 
which  other  sides  may  be  enhanced.  If  we  use  the  term 
hygienic  gymnastics,  the  hygienic  aim  is  so  constantly 
kept  before  our  minds  that  we  can  hardly  escape  a  tend- 
ency to  minimize  other  aspects.  How  could,  for  in- 
stance, he  who  admittedly  practises  hygienic  gymnastics 
be  expected  to  give  any  attention  to  the  development  of 
courage  and  self-reliance,  or  to  the  refinement  of  the 
processes  involved  in  sensation,  or  to  the  shortening  of 
the  reaction-time,  or  to  the  growth  of  will-power,  or  to 
any  of  those  functions  to  foster  which  is  the  aim  of  the 
school  ?  He  will  naturally  give  his  attention  to  the  func- 
tioning of  the  heart  and  the  lungs,  the  stomach  and  the 
liver,  the  skin  and  the  kidneys,  and  so  on,  but  will  per- 
haps forget  the  relationship  between  the  brain  as  an 
organ  of  the  mind  and  the  nerves  and  the  muscles  as 


Introdxictlorv  8 

organs  which  execute  the  orders  of  the  former.  Simi- 
larly, if  we  call  this  branch  educational  gymnastics,  we 
are  prone  to  allow  the  educational  aims  in  the  strictest 
sense  to  overshadow  the  hygienic  ones.  But  the  kind 
of  gj-mnastics  which  we  wish  to  consider  here  is  not 
hygienic  merely,  nor  educational  merely,  but  its  aim  is  a 
double  one.  Were  we  to  choose  school  g^'mnastics  as  a 
proper  designation,  we  might  perhaps  be  led  to  overlook 
the  fact  that  it  is  not  only  the  school  population  which 
is  in  need  of  this  kind  of  gy^mnastics,  but  the  whole 
people,  adults  as  well  as  children,  even  though  it  lies  in 
the  nature  of  things  that  we  must  first  of  all  consider 
the  youth  of  the  land.  And  so  on  with  all  the  terms  men- 
tioned. The  only  objection  that  I  can  myself  advance 
against  the  term  developmental  gymnastics  is  the  fact 
that  one  writer*  has  spoken  of  a  particular  school  or  sys- 
tem as  "the  developmental  school  of  gymnastics,"  be- 
cause, rightly  or  wrongly,  this  school,  which  may  be 
said  to  embrace  most  of  the  native  American  gymnasts, 
is  supposed  to  strive  for  the  development  of  each  indi- 
vidual toward  symmetry  and  accordance  with  a  fixed 
imaginary  standard  of  the  physically  ideal  man.  If  upon 
examination  it  be  found  that  the  circumference  of  one 
arm  is  smaller  than  that  of  its  fellow,  the  adherents  of 
this  school  would  set  about  to  make  them  equal ;  if  the 
arms  be  unusually  small  and  flabby  when  compared  with 
the  legs,  the  aim  would  be  to  adjust  the  relation ;  if  a 
man  be  found  of  a  certain  height  and  age,  whose  chest 
expansion  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  average  man  of 
that  height  and  age,  one  of  the  main  objects  of  this  school 
would  be  to  increase  it  at  least  to  this  average ;  and  so  on. 


1.  A.  E.  Arnold  :  Some  of  the  Principles  that  Guide  Me  in  TeachlnR  Germnn 
Gymnasticfl.  In  the  Report  of  ihe  Tenth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  American  Aveocia- 
tlon  for  the  Advancement  of  Physical  Kdncnlion.  Concord,  N.  H.,  Ib96.  Aluo.in 
"Mind  and  Body,"  Mos.  2i-28,  Mllvraakee,  18e6-«. 


4  Introdvictlon 

This  is  a  development  worth  striving  for,  to  be  sure. 
But  I  mean  something  more  when  I  speak  of  develop- 
ment than  such  changes  as  may  be  measured  by  the  tape, 
calipers  or  spirometer,  and  I  would  call  this  school  the 
anthropometric  one,  because  from  it  has  come  the  im- 
pulse to  judge  the  results  of  our  work  by  actual  measure- 
ments. Even  if  we  believe  that  the  measurements  in 
vogue  are  inadequate  or  inappropriate,  it  does  not  de- 
tract from  the  honor  due  this  school  for  having  pointed 
out  as  none  before  them  that  a  science  of  gymnastics  can 
never  grow  up  except  upon  the  basis  of  some  kind  of 
measurements.  Measurements  were  taken  by  the  Swedes 
and  the  Germans  long  before  this  American  school  arose, 
to  be  sure,  but  they  were  too  sporadic  and  too  devoid  of 
precision  to  have  any  real  value  as  scientific  data. 

Since  the  above  was  written,  I  notice  that  the  term 
developmental  gymnastics  ("Gymnastique  de  developpe- 
ment")  has  already  been  used  by  Demeny,^  and  it  is 
therefore  very  probable  that  I  have  unconsciously  drawn 
upon  him  in  the  above. 


1.    Resume  de  Coure  Theoriques  Bur  rEducation  Physique.    Le  Mans,  1886, 
p.  vi. 


What  Is  Gymnastics? 


"The  grandfather  of  the  German  Turnen"  defined 
gymnastics  as  "a  system  of  exercises  having  bodily  per- 
fection for  aim."  It  is  convenient  to  use  this  definition 
as  a  starting  point  in  elucidating  what  might  properly  be 
embraced  in  the  term.  It  may  perhaps  by  many  be  con- 
sidered pedantic  to  spend  time  in  endeavoring  to  define 
closely  such  a  term  with  the  contents  of  which  all  of  us 
are  supposed  to  be  perfectly  familiar.  But  it  may  be  ex- 
cused on  the  ground  that  nothing  is  more  conducive  to 
sterile  discussions  than  ambiguity  in  the  terms  employed, 
and  that  frequently  a  great  deal  of  time  and  worry  may 
be  saved  by  our  going  back  occasionally  to  the  very 
elements  of  our  conceptions  in  order  to  criticize  them 
in  the  light  of  the  new  experiences  we  may  have  gained 
since  their  first  formation,  experiences  which  often  will 
be  found  of  such  nature  as  to  force  us  to  modify  some- 
what the  terms  in  which  we  have  been  wont  to  express 
them. 

In  considering  the  definition  of  Guts  Muths,  it  may 
be  well  to  note  first  what  the  word  exercises  implies. 
That  it  here  means  repeated  endeavors  lo  c  \cciitc  certain 
movements  of  the  body  or  to  maintain  it  in  certain  posi- 
tions, we  easily  agree.  But  already  Galen  made  the 
statement  that  "every  movement  is  not  an  exercise." 
And  though  in  our  day  we  may  be  unanimous  in  oppos- 

6 


6  What  Is  GymnaLStlcs? 

ing  his  assertion  that  only  strong  movements  shall  be 
considered  as  exercises,  we  have  reason  to  enter  into  in- 
vestigation whether  or  not  the  first  part  of  his  statement 
contains  the  truth,  and  if  so  what  movements  really  are 
exercises  and  which  are  not.  Guts  Muths,  as  far  as  I 
know,  never  expressed  himself  definitely  on  the  question 
what  kind  of  movements  he  would  recognize  as  legiti- 
mate exercises,  though  there  are  several  passages  in  his 
works  by  which  he  plainly  shows  that  he  agrees  with 
Galen  in  the  exclusion  of  some  movements.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  of  his  countrymen  have  repeatedly 
repudiated  this  position.  Not  always  in  intention,  per- 
haps, but  by  their  words.  Spiess  admittedly  strove  for 
a  gymnastic  system  which  was  to  include  all  possible 
movements  of  the  body.  Pestalozzi,  when  speaking 
of  his  articular  movements,  used  the  expression  "com- 
pleteness" in  the  sense  of  embracing  all  possibilities, 
though  he  never  carried  out  his  idea  of  completeness  to 
the  extent  that  Spiess  did,  and,  of  course,  would  have 
absolutely  refused  to  countenance  the  absurdities  found 
in  de  Laspee's  work,*  even  though  the  latter  audaciously 
claimed  to  found  it  on  Pestalozzian  principles.  It  is 
works  like  this  gymnastic  curiosity  which  show  us 
plainly  the  necessity  of  being  strict  in  our  first  funda- 
mental statements.  No  one  can  deny  the  great  value  of 
Pestalozzi's  work  for  physical  training,  and  still  we  have 
here  a  book,  claimed  to  be  based  on  those  of  the  great 
pedagogic  reformer,  which  show  us  in  a  hundred  ways 
how  gymnastics  should  not  be  taught,  be  it  on  Pestaloz- 
zian or  on  any  other  common-sense  principles. 

But  we  need  not  go  back  to  the  pioneers  in  the  field 
of  physical  training,  whose  words  may    and  frequently 


1.  Henry  de  Laspee  :    Calisthenics,  or  the  Elements  of  Bodily  Culture  on  Pes- 
talozzian Principles.    London :  Chas.  Griffln  &  Co.    1865. 


WKoLt  Is  GymnBLStlcs?  7 

have  been  misunderstood  simply  because  they  did  not 
guard  themselves  against  a  misunderstanding  which  they 
could  not  foresee.  Authors  of  a  much  later  date  have 
stepped  into  the  arena  consciously  to  wage  war  for  the 
opinion  that  a  system  of  gymnastics  must  be  all-em- 
bracing, must  include  all  possible  movements.  Among 
these  none  stands  forth  so  prominently,  none  is  looked 
up  to  by  the  upholders  of  everything  in  the  German  sys- 
tem, be  it  good,  bad  or  indifferent,  with  as  much  rever- 
ence and  awe  as  the  late  professor  of  physiology  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  the  eminent  scientist,  Dr.  Emil  du 
Bois  Reymond.  It  was  in  the  celebrated  strife  about  the 
general  usefulness  or  injuriousness  of  the  parallel  bars. 
Rothstein,  sent  by  the  Prussian  Government  to  Sweden 
to  study  the  methods  of  gymnastics  in  vogue  there,  had 
returned  to  Germany  filled  to  overflowing  with  enthusi- 
asm for  what  he  had  seen  and  heard.  Appointed  the 
official  head  of  g>^mnastics  in  Prussia,  he  sharply,  and 
frequently  in  too  inconsiderate  terms,  criticized  the 
methods  bom  and  fostered  on  German  soil.  Instead  of 
treating  the  matter  with  that  tact  and  consideration 
which  we  always  owe  our  opponents  in  a  scientific  con- 
troversy, and  which  is  doubly  incumbent  on  those  who 
claim  to  be  leaders  in  the  educational  field,  he  took  occa- 
sion to  abuse  the  German  g>'mnasts  for  their  ignorance, 
to  scoff  and  sneer  at  the  men  who,  whatever  we  may  say 
of  their  scientific  attainments  at  the  time,  certainly 
already  had  done  an  immense  amount  of  valuable  work 
from  a  practical  and  proselytic  standpoint  in  agitating 
for  the  recognition  of  physical  training  as  a  necessary 
part  of  education.  These  actions  of  Rothstein's  are 
among  the  most  deplorable  events  in  the  history  of  gym- 
nastics. The  rather  theoretical  than  practical  mistake 
of  Spiess,  if  we  even  go  so  far  as  to  call  it  a  mistake  at 


8  WhaLt  Is  Gyn\r\aLStics  ? 

all,  in  endeavoring  to  make,  on  paper,  a  system  of  all- 
possibilities,  leaving  to  the  teacher  the  selection  of  such 
forms  as  he  would  consider  suitable  to  incorporate  in 
his  exercises,  would  undoubtedly  have  done  far  less  harm 
than  Rothstein's  undignified  warfare.  Spiess  probably 
caused  the  acceptance  of  many  forms  which  never  should 
have  been  admitted  into  gymnastics.  But  such  matters 
are  generally  regulated  by  time,  and  signs  were  already 
multiplying  that  the  hard-headed  Teutons  were  under- 
taking a  selection.  Instead  of  assisting  them  in  this 
difficult  task  as,  one  among  them,  he  put  himself  up  as  a 
master  over  them,  as  of  better  clay  than  they,  laying  the 
lash  on  as  hard  as  he  possibly  could,  and  by  so  doing 
he  quite  naturally  aroused  their  antagonism.  Nor  can 
we  admit  that  Rothstein  always  followed  the  precepts 
from  Sweden  in  matters  of  principles.  Believing,  as  he 
undoubtedly  did  honestly,  that  the  majority,  if  not  all, 
of  the  movements  performed  by  the  Germans  on  the 
parallel  bars  were  injurious,  he  did  not  endeavor  to  work 
for  a  more  rational  procedure  on  this  darling  apparatus 
of  the  Germans,  but  declared  war  against  the  apparatus 
itself,  wanting  it  abolished  in  the  country.  I  do  not 
mean  to  intimate  that  it  would  have  done  the  cause  of 
gymnastics  any  harm  had  the  parallel  bars  vanished  for 
good.  On  the  contrary,  I  sincerely  believe  that  gym- 
nastics would  have  benefited  by  it,  and  du  Bois  Rey- 
mond's  assertion  that  if  we  had  not  the  parallel  bars  we 
must  invent  them  ^  is  only  one  of  the  many  absurd 
statements  of  this  author.  But  Rothstein  should  have  fore- 
seen the  impossibility  of  forcing  a  whole  nation  to  such 
a  step  against  their  will,  even  by  the  strength  of  govern- 
mental dicta.  We  may  be  with  Rothstein  in  this  strug- 
gle in  our  capacity  of  gymnasts,  but  as  men  and  believers 

1.  tjber  das  Barrenturnen.    Berlin  :  G.  Eeimer.    1862.    P.  14. 


WKeLt  Is  GymnoLStlos  ?  9 

in  freedom  of  thought  we  certainly  cannot  withhold  our 
sympathies  from  his  opponents.  He  might  have  been 
able  to  secure  the  gradual  elimination  of  the  parallel  bars 
by  convincing  arguments,  if  he  had  such  at  his  disposal. 
That  he  fortified  such  as  he  used  by  the  power  of  his 
official  position  must  deprive  him  of  a  great  part  of  our 
sympathy.  And,  pupil  of  Branting,  he  should  have  re- 
membered that  one  of  the  principles  of  the  system  which 
he  advocated  is  this,  that  any  method  which  depends  on 
the  existence  or  non-existence  of  a  given  apparatus  has 
no  inherent  value ;  that  "the  apparatus  is  of  no  importance 
compared  to  the  organism,"  and  that  "no  apparatus  is 
absolutely  necessary,  and  though  some  apparatus  are 
better  than  others,  none  is  so  poor  that  it  may  not  be  put 
to  good  use  by  a  competent  teacher."  The  result  of  Roth- 
stein's  indiscretions  was  tvhat  might  have  been  anticipated. 
The  growing  feeling  that  a  selection  was  imperative  was 
stifled  by  wounded  pride.  All  admissions  that  every  pos- 
sible movement  did  not  belong  in  a  gymnastic  system 
were  withdrawn  with  emphasis.  Du  Bois  Reymond  took 
up  the  gauntlet  thrown  down  by  the  iconoclast,  and  in 
a  couple  of  peppery  pamphlets  he  proved,  according  to 
his  delighted  compatriots,  "the  absolute  nothingness  of 
the  Swedish  system,"  showing  up  "the  hollowness  of  its 
principles,"  and  in  the  heat  of  the  battle,  throwing  over- 
board the  idea  of  a  rational  selection,  he  audaciously  de- 
clared :  "That  is  rational,  which  is  possible  for  the  body, 
and  nobody  but  the  body  itself  shall  place  limits  for  its 
activity."*  Here  the  principle  of  all-possibility  was  de- 
clared in  plain  words  by  a  man  whose  standing  in  the 
scientific  world  carried  conviction  to  those  who  wavered 
in  their  allegiance.  And  it  is  to  great  extent  because  of 
these  words  by  du  Bois  Reymond  that  the  German  sys- 

1.  Op.  cit.,  p.  88. 


■Xj. 

M,   10  '^    '  WKBLt  Is  GymnaLStlcs  ? 


tern  up  to  our  own  day  has  been  hampered  by  the  lack  of 
a  suitable  selection.  It  is  true  that  the  principle  now  is 
theoretically  abandoned.  It  is  true  that  the  German  gym- 
nasts, like  their  Swedish  brethren,  now  work  for  a  selec- 
tion. But  nobody  can  deny  that  they  have  been  hin- 
dered in  their  advance  by  this  destructive  principle,  which 
has  been  hanging  around  their  necks  like  an  old  man 
of  the  sea,  so  that  in  this  respect  and  from  a  practical 
standpoint  they  have  advanced  very  little  beyond  the 
position  held  just  prior  to  the  Barrenstreit.  The  words 
of  du  Bois  Reymond  could  not  pass  unheeded.  They  are 
a  defense  for  the  most  absurd  procedures.  As  long  as 
they  are  not  definitely  repudiated,  they  will  be  quoted  in 
refutation  of  any  criticism,  however  well-grounded. 
When  all  is  considered  rational,  which  is  possible,  there 
is  no  wrong  way  of  executing  a  movement.  All  ways  are 
equally  legitimate.  Nor  have  we  any  reason  to  exclude 
any  possible  movement.  It  is  perfectly  possible,  at  least 
for  some,  to  bite  in  a  bar  with  such  strength  as  to  sus- 
pend the  body  by  means  of  the  jaws,  as  Spiess  described 
it/  Practise  it  then.  It  is  rational!  It  is  possible  to 
move  the  eyes  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  upward  or  down- 
ward, as  de  Laspee  recommended.  Do  it,  then,  in  the 
gymnasium.  It  is  possible  to  make  a  handstand  wiggling 
the  toes  in  the  air.  Why  not  do  it  as  an  exercise  ?  It  is 
rational,  says  du  Bois  Reymond.  Such  are  the  legitimate 
children  of  his  dictum,  and  they  have  found  their  de- 
fenders. Nobody  now  advocates  exactly  these  absurd- 
ities, though  others,  differing  from  them  in  degree  not 
in  kind,  are  quite  common.  However,  the  year  1862  is 
gone  forever.  Germans,  Swedes  and  all  other  nationali- 
ties are  now  perfectly  agreed  that  a  selection  of  the  gym- 


1.  Die  Lehre  der  Tumkunst.     Zweiter  Theil.    Zweite  Auflage.    Basel  Hugo 
Richter.    1871.    Pp.  156-7. 


Wh«Lt  I*  GymixeLStics?  11 

nastic  material  must  take  place  among  the  vast  number 
of  possible  movements.  The  principle  of  all-possibility 
is  dead.  The  principle  of  selection,  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Swedish  system  since  its  inception,  reigns 
supreme.  But  when  we  come  to  the  practical  application 
of  this  principle  there  is,  and  must,  of  course,  always 
be,  a  considerable  divergence  of  opinion,  whether  or  not 
a  definite  form  of  movement  is  of  such  a  character  as  to 
warrant  its  incorporation  in  a  rational  system  of  gym- 
nastics. This  divergence  of  opinion  does  not,  however, 
need  to  be  so  great  as  it  at  present  appears.  As  knowl- 
edge grows,  the  basis  upon  which  the  selection  is  under- 
taken must  necessarily  become  more  uniform,  while  at 
the  same  time  perfect  freedom  to  use  such  forms  as  are 
not  interdicted  by  any  definite  principle  will  exist  for  all, 
as  it  now  does  in  all  systems. 

To  make  the  various  opinions  coincide  more  closely 
than  they  do  at  present,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  establish 
a  basis  by  which  we  may  be  guided  in  making,  among 
all  possible  movements,  the  selection  of  those  forms 
which  may  properly  be  used  as  gymnastic  exercises.  If 
we  then  for  the  present  turn  away  from  the  definition 
of  Guts  Muths  to  that  of  Ling,  the  originator  of  the 
Swedish  system,  we  find  him  making  the  declaration 
that  "gymnastics"  (in  a  wider  sense  than  that  in  which  we 
here  employ  the  term)  "is  bodily  movements  in  harmony 
with  the  laws  of  the  organism,"  or,  as  he  at  another 
occasion  expressed  himself,  "movements  in  harmony 
with  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  organism." 

This  demand  of  Ling  for  correspondence  between  the 
character  of  the  movement  and  the  condition  of  the  mov- 
ing organism  was,  of  course,  not  original  with  him. 
Guts  Muths  expressed  the  same  idea  in  different  words. 
It  supports  those  tendencies  toward  a  selection  which  we 


X 


12  WK»^t  Is  Gymnocstlcs  7 

have  already  noticed  as  prevalent  among  the  older  true- 
blue  Germans.  It  agrees  perfectly  with  Vieth's  state- 
ment that  "in  the  selection  of  exercises  consideration 
must  be  taken  to  the  age,  physical  development,  power 
and  temperament  of  the  pupil,  ..."  A  kind  of  selec- 
tion to  which,  of  course,  every  gymnastic  teacher,  of 
whatever  nationality  and  period,  unhesitatingly  agrees. 
To  a  certain  extent  it  also  coincides  with  du  Bois  Rey- 
mond's  position.  When  the  latter  asserted  that  every- 
thing is  rational  which  is  possible,  he,  of  course,  also 
meant  that  endeavors  to  do  the  impossible  are  irrational. 
Ling  and  he  would  no  doubt  have  agreed  in  condemning 
exercises  not  permitted  by  the  anatomical  structure  of 
the  normal  body,  even  though  du  Bois  Reymond  denied 
the  need  of  any  anatomical  or  physiological  knowledge 
for  those  who  make  and  arrange  exercises.^  Some 
will  perhaps  maintain  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
assert  that  such  movements  should  not  even  be 
tried  which  are  prohibited  by  the  very  anatomical 
construction  of  the  body.  I  do  so,  however,  because  such 
exercises  have  been  described  by  some  authors  of  promi- 
nence. Thus,  for  instance,  Dr.  Kloss,  Director  of  the 
Royal  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  at  Dresden,  recom- 
mended circumductions  in  the  elbow  joint.' 

But  Ling  said  not  only  that  the  movements  must  be 
in  harmony  with  the  conditions,  but  also  "with  the  needs 
of  the  organism."     Though  so  far  as  I  know,  none  of 


1.  "Um  Leibesuebungen  zu  erflnden  und  zu  ordnen  bedarf  es  keiner  Philoso- 
pheme,  keiner  Anatomie  und  Physiologie.  Die  Anatomic  und  Physiologie,  die  man 
dazu  braucht,  ist  keine  andere  als  die  mit  uns  geboren  ist.    ..."    Op.  cit.,  p.  28. 

2.  Die  weibliche  Turnkunet.  Vierte  durchgesehene  Auflage  (Leipzig.  1889. 
P.  222),  where  under  the  name  of  "  Unterarmkreisen  "  is  described  a  circumduction 
of  the  forearms  "  ohne  Mitbeteiligung  der  Oberarme."  If  I  understand  his  language 
correctly,  the  same  author  has  also  an  equally  impossible  circumduction  in  the  knee 
joints  (Katechismus  der  Turnkunst,  Sechste,  vermehrte  u.  verbesserte  Auflage. 
Leipzig,  1887,  p.  139.)  We  would  be  prone  to  believe  that  such  statements  are  due 
rather  to  an  unhappy  choice  of  words  than  to  an  error  in  thought.  But  the  fact  that 
they  have  been  criticized  from  their  very  first  appearance  and  are  still  retained  in 
several  successive  editions  gives  at  least  some  support  to  the  belief  that  Kloss  en- 
deavored to  extend  the  principle  of  all-possibility  into  the  realm  of  the  impossible. 


What  Is  Gyini\aLStlcs7  13 

the  prominent  Germans,  with  the  exception  of  Guts 
Muths,  has  definitely  expressed  an  opinion  in  the  matter, 
I  believe  we  must  take  for  granted  that  all  of  them  sub- 
scribe to  Ling's  assertion,  and  endeavor  to  do  nothing 
which  is  not  according  to  their  opinion  needed  by  the 
organism.  Guts  Muths  expressed  himself  rather 
strongly  in  the  matter:  "Therefore  it  is  no  more  out  of 
place  to  warn  against  too  multifarious  exercises  than  to 
warn  against  the  multiplying  of  subjects  in  the  common 
school.  Nearly  as  limitless  and  numberless  as  are  the 
mental  exercises  are  those  of  the  body,  but  wishing  to 
learn  everything  is  folly,  and  wishing  to  practise  every- 
thing is  the  same."  *  Thus  in  principle  Swedes  and  Ger- 
mans again  meet  upon  the  same  platform ;  again  they  are 
as  one  in  their  purposes.  That  they  go  different  ways 
to  g^in  their  objects;  that  they,  if  we  judge  from  their 
practices,  have  different  views  with  regard  to  what  does 
and  what  does  not  correspond  with  the  needs  of  the 
organism,  does  not  by  any  means  invalidate  this  state- 
ment. It  is  always  best,  before  entering  into  a  discus- 
sion of  points  at  issue,  to  make  clear  those  to  which  all 
zgree.  And  so  far,  there  seems  to  be,  theoretically,  at 
least,  full  and  complete  accord  between  the  Swedish  and 
the  German  systems,  if  we  except  the  assertions  of  du 
Bois  Reymond  and  those  who  followed  his  lead  in  the 
excitement  due  to  the  invasion  of  Germany  by  Swedish 
gymnastics  under  Rothstein,  and,  of  course,  always  with 
the  exception  of  some  such  in  various  countries,  who, 
like  de  Laspee  in  England,  practised  movements  of  eyes, 
tongue,  lips,  etc.,  all  of  which  is  no  less  condemned  by  the 
true  German  gymnasts  than  by  the  Swedes.' 


1.  Tarnbach    fQr  die  SOhne  des  Vaterlandes.    Frankfurt-am-Mayn.      1817. 
Preface. 

8.  See,  for  inatance,  ELoas  :  Katechlsmas,  pp.  95-96. 


14  WhaLt  Is  GymneLStlcs  ? 

If,  however,  Swedes  and  Germans  in  theory  stand 
together  so  far  as  to  declare  that  movements,  in  order  to 
be  accepted  as  gymnastic  exercises,  must  correspond  both 
to  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  organism,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  of  their  opposition  to  each  other  when  they  get 
down  to  practical  work.  To  prove  it  we  need  only  look 
over  the  works  describing  exercises  used  by  the  two 
schools,  and  we  will  find  numerous  forms  which  are  ac- 
cepted by  the  Germans,  but  vigorously  rejected  by  the 
Swedes.  If  we  take  Spiess  as  a  representative  of  the 
German  system  we  find  him,  for  instance,  enumerating 
not  less  than  ten  different  modes  of  standing,  each  of 
which  he  says  is  to  be  practised  with  both  legs  at  the 
same  time,  with  one  leg,  and  alternately  with  the  right  and 
the  left.  It  may  be  well  to  give  these  postures  in  order  to 
convey  an  idea  of  what  Spiess'  completeness  of  system 
meant.    He  has 

1.  Standing  on  the  heels,  by  a  moderate  dorsal  flexion 
of  the  feet. 

2.  Standing  on  the  balls,  by  a  moderate  extension  of 
the  feet. 

3.  Standing  on  the  heels,  by  increased  dorsal  flexion 
of  the  feet. 

4.  Standing  on  the  toes,  by  increased  extension  of  the 
feet. 

5.  Standing  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  feet,  by  their 
inversion. 

6.  Standing  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  feet,  by  their 
aversion. 

7.  Standing  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  heels,  by  dorsal 
flexion  and  inversion. 

8.  Standing  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  heels,  by  dorsal 
flexion  and  eversion. 


WK«Lt  Is  Gymr\0LStic8i?  15 

9.  Standing  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  balls,  by  exten- 
sion and  inversion. 

10.  Standing  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  balls,  by  exten- 
sion and  eversion.* 

What  the  needs  of  the  normal  organism  may  be  for 
which  all  these  peculiar  postures  are  necessary  or  desir- 
able is  a  matter  to  which  we  plead  ignorance.  Nobody 
denies  that  a  peculiarity  of  structure  may  in  very  rare 
cases  make  such  postures  useful,  but  that  does  not  help 
Spiess  at  all.  He  dealt  not  with  anomalies,  but  with 
normally  healthy,  normally  developed  individuals,  just  as 
we  do. 

Not  satisfied  with  this,  Spiess  also  wanted  these  pos- 
tures to  be  combined  with  the  various  forms  of  "Spreiz- 
stellungen"  (p.  51)  and  numerous  other  postures,  and 
gives  marches  (p.  92),  jumping  (p.  106),  and  running 
(p.  146)  in  them  all.  Spiess  himself  seems  to  have  got 
some  idea  of  the  injuries  which  might  be  brought  about 
by  the  practice  of  these  forms,  because  of  some  of  them 
he  says  that  they  are  not  quite  suitable  for  practice 
("weniger  zur  Uebung  geeignet").  But  if  so,  why  in- 
clude them  at  all  in  the  system  ? 

Grant  now  that  Spiess,  as  revealed  in  his  oldest 
works,  t.  e.,  before  he  came  under  the  influence  of  the 
Swedish  gymnasts,  is  no  longer  representative  of  Ger- 
man gymnastic  thought.  Grant  that  German  gymnastics 
has  grown  since  his  day,  has  left  him  in  the  rear,  has 
arrived  at  some  of  the  principles  which  marked  Ling 
from  the  beginning;  for  instance,  this  one  of  a  proper 
selection  according  to  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the 
organism.  Grant  that  here  is  one  example  to  prove  the 
statement  that  "the  German  system  of  gymnastics  is  at 


1.  AiMLF  Sfixss  :  Dm  Tnrnen  In  den  FreiQbangen.    Zweite  AufUge.    Bazel. 
1867.    P.  48. 


16  WhcLt  Is  GymncLStlcs  ? 

all  times  ready  to  admit  of  improvement,  but  not  until 
it  has  been  clearly  and  undisputably  shown  that  the  pro- 
posed improvements  are  really  such,  and  not  idle  illusions, 
which,  under  a  high-sounding  name  and  an  apparently 
scientific  garb,  are  calculated  to  impress  and  mislead 
the  inexperienced."  ^  Granted  that  the  Germans  have 
thrown  out  a  large  mass  of  the  curiosities  from  the  days 
of  Spiess,  which  stood  forth  in  sharp  contrast  to  Ling's 
simple  procedure.  Grant  that  they  thereby  have  gained 
a  real  improvement,  not  "an  idle  illusion."  Grant  that 
this  exclusion  of  a  large  number  of  unnecessary  forms, 
by  which  they  have  approached  the  ideals  of  the  Swedes 
somewhat,  has  been  a  result  of  internal  development 
among  the  Germans  themselves,  a  growth  of  their  own 
common  sense,  and  I  for  one  am  perfectly  willing  to 
admit  this  and  very  much  more,  if  we  only  sometime 
could  get  rid  of  the  "jalousie  de  metier"  which  prevails 
between  the  two  schools.  Grant  this,  and  we  may  per- 
haps still  be  allowed  to  assert  that  even  in  our  day  the 
German  system  is  not  perfect  so  far  as  the  forms  used 
are  concerned,  that  they  need  a  new  sifting-process,  that 
a  new  selection  needs  to  be  undertaken  in  order  to  get 
rid  of  much  chaff  still  mingled  with  the  wheat.  Now, 
if  this  or  any  other  system  is  not  perfect,  if  it  needs  some 
improvement,  then  it  is  certainly  not  a  wise  policy  of  its 
adherents  to  refuse  to  listen  to  criticisms  by  those  having 
different  opinions.  I  am  sure  that  all  Swedish  gymnasts 
will  admit  without  hesitancy  that  the  Germans  have  the 
requisite  ability  to  place  their  work  upon  as  high  a  level 
as  that  of  any  other  nation  without  any  external  help 
whatever.  One  prominent  among  them  in  this  country 
has  proclaimed  this  ability  of  theirs  to  take  care  of  them- 


1.  William  Fleck  in  "A  Text-book  of  the  German-American  System  of  Gym- 
nastics," edited  by  W.  A.  Stecher.    Boston.    1895.    P.  1. 


WKtt.t  Is  GymrkaLatlos?  17 

selves,  and  has  said  that  their  system  "has  not  been  in- 
fluenced by  any  other."  ^  I  hardly  beHeve  that  this 
latter  statement  would  stand  in  the  light  of  his- 
torical criticism,  and  think  that  I  myself  could  point 
out  such  influence  in  several  directions,  a  fact  for 
which  the  Germans  should  receive  nothing  but  praise. 
But  if  true,  it  points  to  a  self-sufficiency  and  nar- 
rowness in  conception  which,  if  persisted  in,  can- 
not but  be  detrimental  to  the  cause  of  physical 
training,  however  gratifying  to  national  pride  and 
faith  in  dogmas  it  may  appear.  To  refuse  to  accept  a 
truth,  however  small,  from  others,  simply  because  these 
others  are  not  of  the  same  set,  is  to  make  gymnastics, 
education  and  the  children  of  our  land  suffer.  If  my 
words  happen  to  reach  any  Germans,  I  wish  to  say  with 
all  the  little  force  at  my  command  that  it  is  not  as  oppo- 
nents, as  competitors,  as  masters  that  the  Swedes  of 
to-day  come  to  you  in  order  to  make  you  accept  that 
which  you  repudiate.  That  attitude  was  taken  by  Roth- 
stein,  and  it  would  be  well  if  we  could  all  forget  it.  It 
may  perhaps  appear  as  if  the  Swedes  even  now  try  to 
stand  upon  an  imaginary  pedestal,  looking  down  with 
contempt  upon  those  around.  But  I  am  sure  that  in  most 
cases,  at  least,  it  is  only  apparent  because  of  the  strong 
language  we  all  are  apt  to  use  when  we  earnestly  plead 
for  what  we  consider  right  in  an  important  question. 
And  if  it  is  real,  it  emanates  from  that  superficial  knowl- 
edge which  can  be  found  in  all  camps.  We  now  come  to 
you  as  men  having  the  same  aim  as  you,  the  same  holy 
cause  at  heart  as  you.  We  come  as  friends  and  colabor- 
ers  in  the  same  field,  offering  you  to  partake  of  some  of 
the  good  things  which  we  think  we  have  found,  and 
which  we  think  have  escaped  your  notice,  willing  at  the 

1.  H.  Mstzhxb:  Report  of  the  Physical  Training  Conference  in  Boflton,  1899,  p.  87. 


18  WKcLt  Is  GymncLStlcs? 

same  time  to  accept  from  you  whatever  you  can  offer 
us  in  exchange  to  further  our  common  cause.  Let  the 
old  strife  be  ended,  the  old  warfare  closed,  the  old  hatred 
extinguished.  Let  the  forces  join  under  the  same  ban- 
ner, to  strike  powerful  strokes  for  gymnastics,  for  our 
children,  for  our  youth,  for  our  men  and  women,  for 
coming  generations,  to  the  glory  of  all  lands.  In  this 
matter  of  a  proper  selection,  for  instance,  we  think  that 
we  have  seen  the  light  of  noon,  while  for  you  the  day  has 
hardly  broken.  Listen  to  what  we  have  to  say.  Reject 
everything  which  does  not  seem  to  you  to  be  based  on 
good  grounds,  but  do  not  refuse  that  which  you  cannot 
gainsay. 

Ling's  definition  of  gymnastics,  then,  only  makes 
clearer  that  of  Guts  Muths,  without  changing  its  mean- 
ing, and  we  may,  therefore,  be  permitted  to  substitute 
the  former  for  the  latter,  so  far  as  we  have  hitherto 
scrutinized  the  two.  To  avoid  later  complications,  it  is 
well  here  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  Ling  included 
in  his  term  movements  also  active  postures,  used  as  ex- 
ercises, and  as  I  am  sure  there  can  be  no  objection  to 
have  this  plainly  indicated,  I  will  temporarily  transcribe 
Guts  Muths'  definition  so  as  to  read:  "Gymnastics  is  a 
system  of  postures  and  movements  in  harmony  with  the 
conditions  and  needs  of  the'l)rganism,.  having  bodily  per- 
fection for  aim."    ' 

But  this  expression,  "bodily  perfection,"  may  per- 
haps cause  some  misunderstanding.  There  are  as  yet 
very  many  who  cling  to  the  old  dualistic  conception  of 
man  as  composed  of  two  distinct  entities — ^body  and  mind. 
Perhaps  they  do  not  do  so  in  that  sense  that  they  are  will- 
ing to  make  themselves  sponsors  for  such  a  conception, 
but  it  is  certain  that  they  are  not  so  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  more  modern  doctrine  of  mind  as  merely  the 


Wh«Lt  Is  Gyn\i\aL8tlc8  ?  19 

Other  side  of  nervous  processes  that  it  has  taken  com- 
plete possession  of  them  and  become  the  moving  force 
within  them.  Therefore,  though  it  may  be  perfectly  safe, 
so  far  as  the  leaders  of  thought  are  concerned,  to  say 
with  Guts  Muths  that  the  purpose  of  gymnastics  is  bodily 
perfection,  it  is  at  least  not  politic  to  do  so,  because  many 
will  accept  that  term  in  a  narrower  sense  than  that  im- 
posed upon  us  by  the  modern  view  of  man.  It  can  cer- 
tainly do  no  harm  to  choose  our  words  so  as  to  com- 
pletely close  any  loophole  for  those  who  still  look  upon 
body  and  mind  as  antagonistic  in  their  nature.  That 
there  actually  does  exist  a  danger  of  ambiguity  in  this 
regard  is  evident,  among  other  things,  from  the  well- 
known  fact  that  the  support  given  to  any  form  of  physical 
exercise  in  our  educational  system  is  mainly  due  to  the 
dissemination  of  knowledge  that  health  becomes  seriously 
impaired  by  the  methods  of  instruction  so  long  prevalent 
in  our  schools,  to  the  general  belief  that  this  impairment 
of  the  body  must  inevitably  be  associated  with  intense 
"mental  training,"  and  that  "physical  training"  is  able 
to  counteract  these  evil  results  of  the  school  work  by 
restoring  the  equilibrium  between  body  and  mind,  sup- 
posedly lost  by  overloading  the  latter.  So  is  the  popu- 
lar belief  of  our  day.  So  it  has  always  been.  The  suc- 
cess hitherto  gained  in  incorporating  physical  training 
as  an  integral  part  of  our  educational  system  is  due  to 
this  popular  belief.  Few  indeed  are  those  who  perceive 
that  the  loss  of  health  is  due  not  to  a  too  strenuous  men- 
tal training  but  to  erroneous  methods  employed  in  it. 
Few  are  there  who  understand  that  what  is  conveniently 
called  physical  training  is  not  only  a  means  to  preserve 
health  by  being  put  in  opposition  to  mental  training,  but 
that  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  method  of  mental  training, 
the  opening  of  new  avenues  to  the  mind,  so  that  the  gym- 


20  WK&.t  Is  Gyn\nacstics? 

nastic  exercises  at  the  same  time  that  they  tend  to  pre-  ^ 
serve  or  restore  health,  actually  complement,  fortify,  in-  I 
tensify  and  enrich  the  mental  training  gained  by  other  ' 
methods.     And  still  fewer  are  those  who  are  ready  to 
accept   the   newer   psychological   doctrine   that   no   con-  < 
sciousness,  no  mental  life,  no  idea,  no  thought,  no  emo-  f 
tion    can  exist  without  a  muscular  contraction,  which  is  I 
the  fundamental  basis  of  mind.    For  these  reasons,  then, 
it  would  seem  advantageous  and  conducive  to  a  clear  un- 
derstanding to  emphasize  in  plain  words  the  effects  of 
gymnastics  upon  the  so-called  mental  nature  as  well  as 
upon  the  body  and  to  make  evident  their  intimate  rela- 
tions to  each  other.     This  demand  seems  to  be  fulfilled 
by  the  definition  of  Ling,  according  to  whom  gymnastics 
in  the  limited  sense  in  which  we  are  taking  the  term,  or, 
in  other  words,  developmental  gymnastics,  is  that  branch  . 
{  "by  which  man  learns  to  place  his  body  under  control  of  1 
his  will."    It  seems,  therefore,  better  from  all  viewpoints  | 
to  substitute  Ling's  definition  for  that  of  Guts  Muths, 
and  say  that  gymnastics  is  the  application  of  postures  and 
movements  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  and  needs  of 
the  organism  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the  body  under 
control  of  the  will. 

This  definition  not  only  corresponds  with  Ling's  idea, 
but  also  to  Guts  Muths'  conception  of  "gymnastik,"  and 
to  the  "Turnen"  of  the  older  Germans.  But  is  it  also 
descriptive  of  gymnastics  in  our  time  ?  The  "gymnastik'* 
of  Guts  Muths  and  Ling,  as  well  as  the  "Turnen"  of  the 
former,  of  Jahn,  and  others,  included  not  only  the  for- 
mal, methodical  exercises  as  they  are  executed  in  the 
gymnasium  or  on  the  *'Turnplatz,"  but  an  equally  in- 
tegral part  of  their  systems  was  free,  spontaneous  ac- 
tivity in  the  open  air,  such  as  plays  and  games,  running 
races,  jumping  ditches,  climbing  trees  and  hills,  swim- 


WhAt  la  GymnBLStlcs  ?  21 

ming,  skating,  coasting,  sailing,  etc.  These  terms  were 
practically  synonymous  with  a  free  and  happy  active 
out-of-door  life,  enlivened  by  sports.  Is  it  so  with  these 
terms  to-day? 

When  the  Swedish  "gymnastik"  and  the  German 
"Tumen,'*  which  by  Jahn  has  been  substituted  for  Guts 
Muths'  original  term,  clashed  in  later  years,  efforts  were 
made  on  both  sides  to  emphasize  the  differences  rather 
than  to  point  out  the  similarities.  Rothstein  and  his  fol- 
lowers, among  whom  might  be  quoted  at  least  one  promi- 
nent representative  of  the  Swedish  system  in  the  United 
States,  accused  their  opponents  of  "picnicking,"  while 
the  latter  criticized  the  Swedes  for  laying  all  stress  on 
the  formal  movements,  none  on  pleasure  and  youthful 
animation. 

To  find  what  grounds  there  were  for  these  mutual 
accusations  and  their  explanations  it  is  necessary  to  look 
over  the  historical  development  of  physical  education, 
the  forces  which  drove  Jahn  and  Ling  to  their  work,  and 
to  see  how  far  the  conditions  had  changed  at  the  time 
of  Rothstein. 

France  was  mistress  of  Europe.  Her  political  power 
was  at  its  height.  Her  king  and  ministers  practically 
framed  the  laws  for  the  whole  continent.  Her  armies 
marched  victorious  from  one  end  of  Europe  to  the  other 
at  will.  Her  language  made  inroads  not  only  at  the 
courts,  but  in  polite  society  everywhere.  Her  thinkers 
and  men  of  letters  dominated  far  outside  the  political 
borders.  French  customs  spread  rapidly  over  Europe. 
She,  in  brief,  threatened  by  her  power  to  crush  the  inde- 
pendent national  life,  the  national  culture  everywhere. 
No  wonder,  then,  that  patriotic  men  in  many  countries 
saw  the  diminishing  influence  of  their  own  nationalities 
with*  sorrow  and  indignation,  and  arose,  spontaneously 


!^  WKolI  Is  GymnaLStlcs? 

fired  by  a  righteous  wrath,  to  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke, 
political  and  social.  Such  a  man  was  Jahn.  German 
from  the  innermost  recesses  of  his  big  soul,  loving  the 
German  people,  the  German  nation,  not  yet  unified  even 
in  feelings,  German  history,  language,  literature,  habits, 
his  aim  was  freedom  in  all  directions  from  foreign 
domination.  He  saw,  he  understood  more  thoroughly  per- 
haps than  any  other  of  his  countrymen  that  such  freedom 
must  be  gained  by  enthusing  his  fellow  men,  by  stirring 
their  dormant  national  feelings,  by  kindling  in  their  souls 
a  burning  hatred  to  the  oppressors.  Or  if  he  did  not 
see  it  more  clearly  than  many  others,  he,  at  least,  being 
a  man  of  action,  convinced  of  his  own  powers  and  of  the 
righteousness  of  the  cause,  undertook  to  do  it.  Hence 
it  was  not  only  physical  health,  strength  and  agility, 
not  merely  the  strengthening  of  the  intellectual  powers, 
but  the  creation  of  sentiment,  of  feeling,  of  love,  of  in- 
dignation, which  stood  before  him  as  a  goal.  The  flag 
carried  before  his  Turner  on  their  marches  to  Hasen- 
heide  was  not  merely  a  rag  of  bunting.  It  was  the  sym- 
bol of  a  beloved  fatherland.  The  songs  were  not  used 
merely  to  give  the  stimulus  of  music  to  the  march,  but 
in  glorifying  the  beauties  of  nature,  the  deeds  of  German 
men,  in  paying  homage  to  those  who  had  fought  and 
died  for  home  and  country,  their  purpose  was  to  fan 
the  flame  of  patriotic  feeling,  of  love  for  Germany,  for 
the  land  where  they  lived,  for  their  own  country,  the 
country  of  their  fathers  and  mothers,  the  country  of  their 
children.  But  flags  and  songs  and  speeches  must  be  sup- 
plemented by  action  to  be  effective.  The  feelings  must  find 
their  expression.  This  action  the  exercises  provided,  the 
plays,  the  games,  the  marches  into  the  country,  the  gym- 
nastics. And  when  the  time  for  earnest  action  came,  then 
the  Turner  were  in  the  army  assisting  in  the  glorious  work 


WKe^t  Is  GymrkCLStlcs?  23 

of  throwing  the  invaders  back.  We  find  that  every 
Turnverein  was  a  political  center  where  plans  were  laid 
and  executed  to  keep  liberty  high  when  assailed  by  ex- 
ternal or  internal  foes.  Politics  was  not  a  matter  ex- 
traneous to  Tumen.  It  was  part  of  it.  And  it  was  a 
necessary  part.  Those  who  find  fault  with  it  and  its  "pic- 
nicking" have  forgotten  its  history,  have  forgotten  that 
it  was  the  very  life  of  the  original  Turnen,  its  reason  for 
existence.  And  happy  indeed  is  Germany  that  it  was 
so;  happy  she  may  be  called  that  all  traces  of  it  are  not 
yet  totally  eflfaced,  but  plainly  noticeable  under  the  sur- 
face. 

In  Sweden  essentially  the  same  conditions  existed  at 
the  change  of  the  centuries  as  in  Germany.  Sweden  as 
a  world-power  was  no  more.  She  no  longer  dictated  the 
policy  of  Europe.  It  was  no  longer  even  question  of  a 
policy  for  her  own  benefit,  but  whether  it  paid  her  politi- 
cal leaders  best  to  execute  the  behests  of  Russia  or 
France.  Money  from  both  swelled  the  purses  of  Swedish 
"statesmen."  Authors  and  artists  sought  their  models  in 
France.  "The  tongue  of  honor  and  heroes"  was  no 
longer  kept  pure,  but  was  besmirched  with  multifarious 
French  phrases.  The  national  feeling  was  ebbing  fast. 
A  general  decadence  had  apparently  set  in.  But  it  was 
only  the  outer  shell  of  national  life  which  was  destroyed. 
The  core  was  sound.  So,  when  the  pendulum  had  made 
its  swing,  the  return  came.  The  young  mental  and  moral 
aristocracy  of  the  country  rose  in  rebellion.  Go  back  to 
the  sturdy  manhood  of  the  forefathers!  Take  up  anew 
their  virile  ideals !  Do  not  pride  yourselves  of  the  deeds 
of  the  ancestors  while  you  yourselves  perish  from  inactiv- 
ity! "Boast  not  ancestral  honor;  a  man  has  but  his 
own !"  Up  and  be  doing !  Deliver  yourselves  and  your 
people  from  bondage!    And  there  shall  rise  again  a  reju- 


24  WKcLt  !•  Gymne^stlcs  7 

venated  Sweden,  with  right  to  glory  in  her  old  history 
and  culture.  So  they  preached  in  song  and  drama,  with 
pen  and  brush  and  chisel.  Art  and  literature  no  longer 
drew  the  inspiration  from  abroad.  The  old  sagas  fur- 
nished the  themes  of  heroism  and  honor,  devotion  to  duty 
and  love  of  country  and  home.  The  spirit  was  again 
Swedish.  So  were  the  actions.  A  new  period  broke  in. 
Darkness  disappeared,  the  dawn  came,  and,  as  a  lusty 
youth  with  a  future,  not  only  a  past,  stood  Sweden  again 
in  the  rank  of  nations. 

Ling  was  one  of  the  active  spirits  in  this  movement. 
His  Hterary  work  was  all  of  it  consecrated  to  its  service. 
Already  in  Copenhagen  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
such  representatives  of  national  renaissance  in  Danish 
literature  as  Oehlenschlager  and  Steffens.  Later  he  felt 
the  strength  of  the  recreations  of  Swedish  national  song 
and  history  by  Tegner  and  G^ijer,  and  reacted  back  on 
them,  while  the  sculptors  Fogelberg  and  Bystrom,  the 
painters  Sandberg  and  Wahlbom  and  a  host  of  others 
drew  inspiration  from  him.  And  his  gymnastic  work 
was  driven  forward  by  and  intermingled  with  his  general 
national  activity.  It  was  not  a  thing  apart  from  his  gen- 
eral feelings  for  nation  and  humanity ;  it  entered  into  it 
and  was  itself  pervaded  by  it.  The  general  character- 
istics of  Ling  and  Jahn  were  essentially  the  same.  The 
differences  were  in  details.  And  the  same  may  be  said  of 
their  work.  The  differences  depended  on  local  con- 
ditions rather  than  on  a  divergence  in  spirit.  Sweden 
did  not  have  a  great  war,  upon  which  her  very  existence 
depended.  The  war  was  already  over  before  Ling's 
work  had  taken  solid  form.  There  remained  nothing 
but  to  "reconquer  Finland  within  the  boundary  lines  of 
Sweden  herself."  The  reaction  which  settled  upon  Ger- 
many after  the  Holy  Alliance  was  never  so  pronounced 


WKe^t  Is  GymnaLStlcs?  25 

in  Sweden.  Hence,  politics  became  more  prominent 
in  its  external  manifestations  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter  country.  But  the  spirit  was  the  same  in  both. 
Rothstein  may  not  have  noticed  it,  because  there  was  no 
need  of  the  Swedish  gymnasts  becoming  barricade  heroes. 
Ling's  work  was  also  soon  taken  up  by  the  Government, 
his  pupils  were,  to  great  extent,  military  officers,  and  thus 
it  happened  that  in  time  gymnastics  in  Sweden  became 
somewhat  aristocratic,  contrary  to  the  intentions  of  Ling, 
while  Jahn's  creation  had  to  fight  many  a  battle  with 
the  powers  of  the  State,  and  therefore  retained  its  demo- 
cratic character,  and  even  became  a  hall-mark  of  pro- 
gressive opposition.  Therein  may  be  sought  the  internal 
causes  of  such  differences  which  were  not  apparent  in 
the  beginning,  differences  which  include  both  good  and 
bad  features  of  both  systems  to-day.  In  Sweden,  the 
work  of  Ling  became  recognized,  and  hence  freed  from 
the  dangers  arising  from  the  tendencies  of  irresponsible 
persons  to  "improve"  upon  that  of  which  they  have  only 
perceived  the  surface.  In  Germany  any  leader  of  a  Turn- 
verein  considered  himself  competent  to  invent  and  ar- 
range new  forms  as  they  suited  his  fancy.  Then  there 
necessarily  came  in  Sweden  a  time  when  the  rules  and 
regulations  laid  down  by  the  authorities  appeared  more 
important  than  the  spirit,  when  the  form  was  maintained, 
while  the  life  disappeared.  At  the  same  time  the  oppo- 
site tendency  was  noticeable  in  Germany ;  the  spirit  was 
that  of  old,  but  the  forms  in  which  this  spirit  was  clothed 
fell  to  tatters.  No  wonder,  then,  that  Rothstein  con- 
centrated his  energy  upon  the  formal  methodical  side  of 
physical  education,  while,  apparently,  at  least,  looking 
down  upon  its  social,  mental  and  political  phases. 
Though  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  reality  he  laid  all 
needed  stress  upon  these  features,  too.    But  the  Germans 


26  WKoLt  Is  Gyn\r\eLStlcs  7 

of  his  day  had  nothing  to  learn  from  the  other  side  of 
the  Baltic  in  this  regard.  They  could  even  with  profit 
have  turned  masters  themselves.  But  with  regard  to  the 
formal  side,  there  was  very  much  for  them  to  learn.  The 
principle  of  all-possibility  was  not  generally  repudiated. 
Whatever  blame  was  hurled  at  Rothstein  by  the  Turner 
of  his  day,  how  much  those  of  our  own  time  may  think 
of  him  as  simply  a  disturber  of  the  peace,  who  was  hap- 
pily killed  off,  no  unbiased  student  can  deny  that  he 
powerfully  influenced  them  to  the  better. 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  an  endeavor  has  been 
made  to  show  that  Ling's  "friskgymnastik"  and  Jahn's 
"Tumen"  were  essentially  alike  in  spirit  and  content.  But 
among  the  Germans  the  term  Gymnastik  soon  came  to 
have  a  narrower  sense  than  Turnen.  Germans  of  our 
day  and  country  have  endeavored  to  make  the  two  terms 
synonymous  and  to  use  them  indiscriminately  for  the 
same  idea,  translating  Turnen  with  gymnastics.  The 
fact  remains,  however,  that  in  the  German  language  they 
are  not  synonyms.  When  Jahn  invented,  or  resuscitated, 
the  term  Turnen,  "Gymnastik"  was  segregated  as  only 
a  small  part  of  Turnen,  and  this  part  was  supposed  to 
have  its  purpose  in  "the  mere  development  of  the  cor- 
poreal abilities,"  while  the  Turnen  retained  its  more  all- 
sided  aim."  Gymnastik  became  a  term  of  opprobrium. 
And  in  Sweden  "gymnastik"  has  similarly  been  more  and 
more  circumscribed  since  Ling's  time.  It  is  true  that  we 
still  find  some  who  call  horseback  riding,  swimming, 
skating  and  similar  exercises  "gymnastik,"  but  when 
they  do  so  they  use  the  word  in  a  loose  way,  and  such 
exercises  are  habitually  separated  from  "gymnastik" 
under  the  name  of  "idrott." 

In   an   endeavor   to   make   a   close-fitting   definition 

1.  See,  for  instance,  Guts  Muths'  Tambuch,    Preface. 


WKo^t  Is  Gymnetstlcs  7  37 

covering  our  modern  ideas  and  corresponding  to  our 
modem  ideals,  two  questions  arise  therefor:  Shall  we 
expressly  include  or  expressly  exclude  education  to 
patriotism,  love  of  freedom  and  manhood,  hatred  of  op- 
pression, etc.,  all  of  which  was  characteristic  of  the 
first  period?  I  think  neither,  because  it  belongs  to  all 
education  to  rear  independence  and  self-reliance,  love  of 
country  and  community,  hatred  of  injustice.  Gymnastics 
differs  in  that  regard  in  no  way  from  other  educational 
branches.  Are  we  to  make  the  term  so  broad  as  to  in- 
clude all  the  physical  activity  which  originally  was  in- 
cluded in  it,  or  shall  we  yield  to  the  commoner  concep- 
tion and  narrow  it  to  its  usual  present  contents  ?  I  think 
there  are  advantages  on  both  sides.  The  former  pro- 
cedure would  be  beneficial  in  so  far  as  it  might  help  to 
emphasize  the  importance  of  sports  and  play,  which  many 
of  our  g>^mnastic  teachers  perhaps  look  down  upon. 
This  danger,  however,  is  small  in  the  English-speaking 
countries.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  forget 
that  language  is  not  made,  but  grows.  It  is  the  result 
of  evolutionary  forces,  over  which  we,  as  individuals, 
have  small  influence,  but  to  which  we  must  all  bow.  I 
think,  therefore,  that  the  only  possible  way  is  to  segre- 
gate gymnastics  as  a  part  of  physical  education  in  our 
definition,  as  we  already  have  done  it  in  our  common 
parlance. 

If  this  is  agreed,  then  we  must  seek  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  in  the  gymnastics,  as  we  in  our  time 
understand  the  term,  and  other  forms  of  physical  educa- 
tion. I  have  already  intimated  this  difference.  Gym- 
nastics is  formal,  predetermined  by  the  teacher,  both  as 
regards  the  form  of  the  movements  entering  in  it,  and 
as  regard  the  exact  time  when  and  during  which  they 
are  to  be  executed,  the  paths  to  be  traversed  and  the 


28  WKa.t  Is  GymnoLStlcs  ? 

speed  with  which  each  individual  movement  shall  be 
made  and  the  order  and  speed  with  which  they  are  to 
follow  each  other.  Sports,  "idrott,"  play,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  guided  in  this  respect  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
moment.  Predetermination  is  the  prevailing  character 
of  the  former,  spontaneity  of  the  latter.  When  the  pre- 
determination is  lacking  in  movements  intended  for  gym- 
nastics, when,  in  other  words,  they  are  not  performed  in 
exact  form  and  exact  time,  when  precision  is  lost,  we  have 
no  right  to  speak  of  them  as  gymnastics.  Similarly  with 
the  sports  and  games.  If  the  spontaneity  is  taken  away,  if 
the  lash  of  the  trainer  be  needed  to  keep  the  crew  at  work 
for  the  boat-race,  if  the  movements  of  each  man  in  the 
football  team  be  predetermined  by  the  coach,  it  is  no  longer 
sport,  play,  ''idrott."  relaxation ;  it  is  grinding  toil,  soul- 
killing  athleticism,  such  as  neither  Ling  nor  Jahn  ever 
thought  of,  but  such  as  marked  the  degradation  of  phys- 
ical training  in  ancient  Greece. 

Tentatively,  at  least,  I  would  therefore  propose  this 
modified  definition  of  gymnastics  as  in  accord  with  the 
modem  conception,  and  naturally  evolved  out  of  those 
of  the  great  masters. 

Gymnastics  is  the  application  of  postures  and  move- 
ments in  harmony  with  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the 
organism,  and  predetermined  with  regard  to  space  and 
time,  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the  body  under  control 
of  the  zvill. 

If  this  definition  be  accepted,  we  have  established  the 
first  fundamental  principle — that  of  gymnastic  selection, 
as  opposed  to  the  ruinous  one  of  all-possibility,  and  have 
drawn  the  distinction  between  gymnastics  on  the  one 
hand,  sports  and  play  on  the  other. 


^^  riAV  USE 


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